Coasts in many countries currently face severe sea-level rise problems as a consequence of tectonically and anthropogenically induced subsidence. An estimated 46 million people per year currently are at risk of flooding from storm surges. Climate change will exacerbate these problems, leading to potential impacts on ecosystems and human coastal infrastructure. Large numbers of people also are potentially affected by sea-level rise, for example, tens of millions of people in Bangladesh would be displaced by a 1-m increase (the top of the range of IPCC Working Group I estimates for 2100) in the absence of adaptation measures. A growing number of extremely large cities are located in coastal areas, which means that large amounts of infrastructure may be affected. Although annual protection costs for many nations are relatively modest, about 0.1 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP), the average annual costs to many small island states total several per cent of GDP. For some island nations, the high cost of providing storm-surge protection would make it essentially infeasible, especially given the limited availability of capital for investment.

Beaches, dunes, estuaries and coastal wetlands adapt naturally and dynamically to changes in prevailing winds and seas, as well as sea-level changes; in areas where infrastructure devel-opment is not extensive, planned retreat and accommodation to changes may be possible. It also may be possible to rebuild or relocate capital assets at the end of their design life. In other areas, however, accommodation and planned retreat are not viable options, and protection using hard structures (e.g., dikes, levees, floodwalls and barriers) and soft structures (e.g., beach nourishment, dune restoration and wetland creation) will be necessary. Factors that limit the implementation of these options include inadequate financial resources, limited insti-tutional and technological capability, and shortages of trained personnel. In most regions, current coastal management and planning frameworks do not take account of the vulnerability of key systems to changes in climate and sea level or long lead times for implementation of many adaptation measures. Inappropriate policies encourage development in impact-prone areas. Given increasing population density in coastal zones, long lead times for implementation of many adaptation measures, and institutional, financial and technological limitations (particularly in many developing countries), coastal systems should be considered vulnerable to changes in climate.